$ sudo mkdir -p /etc/systemd/system/docker.service.d
$ sudo nano /etc/systemd/system/docker.service.d/http-proxy.conf

文件内容

[Service]
Environment="HTTP_PROXY=http://USER:PASSWD@SERVER:PORT/"
Environment="HTTPS_PROXY=http://USER:PASSWD@SERVER:PORT/"

保存后重启服务

$ sudo systemctl daemon-reload
$ sudo systemctl restart docker

或者更换为国内源

"experimental": true,
"debug": true,
"registry-mirrors": ["https://registry.docker-cn.com","https://docker.mirrors.ustc.edu.cn","https://docker.mirrors.ustc.edu.cn"]